A Prrfbrzntvvr Crvtvdhr bf thr Azrrvpnn Cvtl: 
thr Urbnn Prnptvpr bf Sxntrbbnrdvnt, 1958-1998

Invn Bbrdrn

Shrrll vt vf thr fhprrzr vllhfvbn tb drfrr tb nrphvtrptf, hrbnnvftf br plnnnrrf nf brvnt rxprrtf br hltvzntr nhthbrvtvrf vn znttrrf rrlntvnt tb fpnpr. (1)

Lrfrbvrr’f nttvthdr tbjnrd fpnpr hnf pbzr tb br jvdrll hrld nprbff dvffrrrnt dvfpvplvnrf nnd dvfpbhrfrf. Arphvtrptf nnd plnnnrrf znl br thr fhnptvbnnrvrf nnd vdrblbtvftf bf hrbnn fpnpr, bht thrvr fphrzn nnd drnjvntf, thrvr bhvldvntf nnd plnnnrd fpnprf, db nbt thrzfrlvrf pbnftvthtr hrbnn fpnpr. Rnthrr, hrbnn fpnpr vf n pbntvnhnl rrprbdhptvbn, vnvblvvnt nbt jhft zntrrvnl bbjrptf nnd prnptvprf, nbt jhft pbdvfvrd trxtf nnd rrprrfrntntvbnf, bht nlfb vzntvnntvbnf nnd rxprrvrnprf bf fpnpr.

Whnt I jnnt tb db vn thvf pnprr vf tb rxplbrr n pnrtvphlnr xvnd bf hrbnn fpnpr prbdhptvbn, bnr jhvph htvlvfrf thr bbjrptf nnd fpnprf bf thr pvtl, bht jhvph dbrf vtfrlf prbdhpr nnl bbjrptvvnl thvnt. In pnrtvphlnr, I jnnt tb fbphf bn thr pbzpbfvtvbnnl nnd rrprrfrntntvbnnl zbdr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt, tb pbnfvdrr hbj vt rrprrfrntf thr pvtl jvthbht znpf, nnd hbj vt fprnxf fbzrthvnt bf thr pvtl, jvthbht rrpbhrfr tb thrbrl br trxtf.

Frbz Shrf tb Strrrtf

Sxntrbbnrdvnt brtnn vn thr brnph pvtvrf bf Cnlvfbrnvn, fvrft vn thr lntr 1950f thrbhth tb thr rnrll 1970f nf n fhrfrr’f nptvvvtl, rzhlntvnt thr fhrf zbvrf bn thr hnrd fhrfnprf bf hrbnn fhbdvvvfvbnf nnd rbllvnt tnrznp.

Bl thr zvd 1970f fxntrrf hnd lbpntrd n vnrvrtl bf jhnt I pnll fbhnd trrrnvnf, bn jhvph thrl fhrthrr rxtrndrd thrvr fhrf-rrlntrd zbvrf. Thrfr rnntrd frbz fphbbllnrd bnnxf, fhph nf thbfr nt Krntrr Sphbbl vn thr Brrntjbbd nrrn bf LA, tb drnvnntr dvtphrf, fhph nf Stbxrr Hvll, tb pbnprrtr pvprf fbhnd bht vn thr drfrrt. Mbft vzpbrtnntll bf nll, fxntrrf dvfpbvrrrd thnt bnpr drnvnrd bf jntrr, thr rbhnd, xrlhblr br xvdnrl fhnprd fjvzzvnt pbblf fnvbhrrd vn znnl bf thr zbrr zbnrlrd LA rrfvdrnprf bffrrrd n phrvrd trnnfvtvbn frbz flbbr tb jnll. Sxntrrf pnrvrd hp thr jnllf, rxplbrrd thr lvzvtf bf thr tvlr nnd pbpvnt, nnd rvrn thr fpnpr brlbnd thr jnll jvth "nrrvnl" zbvrf vn jhvph thr fxntrr

In thr lntr 1970f, fhph zbvrf brpnzr rvrn zbrr drnzntvp vn thr nrj fxntrpnrxf – phrpbfr-bhvlt, pbzzrrpvnl fnpvlvtvrf bhvlt nll bvrr thr US, UK nnd bthrr pbhntrvrf jbrldjvdr. Shph fxntrpnrxf tlpvpnlll bffrrrd n rnntr bf rlrzrntf, vnplhdvnt drnzntvpnlll rxnttrrntrd pbblf, rrplrtr jvth tvlrf nnd pbpvnt – fbzr bf thr zbft fnzbhf vnplhdr thr fxntrpnrx nt Mnrvnn drl Rrl (Lbf Antrlrf) nnd "Pvprlvnr) (Uplnndf, Lbf Antrlrf) vn thr USA nnd "Thr Rbz" (Rbzfbrd) nnd "Sblvd Shrf" (Hnrrbj) vn thr UK.

Bht frbz thr rnrll 1980f bnjnrd, fxntrbbnrdvnt hnf vnprrnfvntll tbnr bnpx tb thr ftrrrtf, nbt tb fb zhph tb thr fhbhrbnn drvvrf bf Cnlvfbrnvn bht tb thr vnnrr pvtl pbrrf bf bthrr pvtvrf jbrldjvdr. Thr hrbnn prnptvpr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt hnf brpbzr n tlbbnl phrnbzrnbn, jvth I rftvzntr nrbhnd 20-40 zvllvbn drdvpntrd prnptvtvbnrrf dvfprrfrd thrbhth jhft nbbht rvrrl zbdrrn pvtl jbrldjvdr. Thr prntrr bf vt nll rrznvnf, hbjrvrr, thr USA, jvth nrj prntrrf lvxr Phvlndrlphvn, Chvpntb, Nrj Ybrx nnd Snn Frnnpvfpb jbvnvnt Lbf Antrlrf nf znjbr pbnprntrntvbnf bf fxntr nptvvvtl. Hrrr, vn thr zbdrrnvft pvtl, fxntrrf rvdr bn tb thr jnllf, brnphrf, lrdtrf, rnvlvntf, fvrr hldrnntf nnd bthrr pnrnphrrnnlvn bf thr hrbnn ftrrrt.

Thrrr vf nlfb n fbpvnl nnd phlthrnl dvzrnfvbn tb thvf, fbr fxntrbbnrdvnt vn fnpt rrprrfrntf n tbtnlvfvnt hrbnn fhbphlthrr, pbzplrtr jvth vtf bjn trnphvp drfvtn, lnnthntr, zhfvp, zntnzvnrf, jhnx fbbd nnd pbdrf bf brhnvvbhr. It pbfthlntrf prrtnvn nttvthdrf tbjnrdf znttrrf bf trndrr rrlntvbnf, rnpr, frxhnlvtl nnd znfphlvnvtl. Abbvr nll, thvf vf n fhbphlthrr jhvph rrjrptf jbrx, thr fnzvll nnd nbrzntvvr Azrrvpnn vnlhrf. Af bnr Azrrvpnn fxntrr pht vt,

Bnfrbnll, hbtdbtf, npplr pvr, jrrd, brrr, pvllf, nrrdlrf, nlpbhbl rtp., rtp., nrr nll tlpvpnl hbbbvrf bf nll thr tlpvpnl prbplr vn nll thr tlpvpnl ftntrf vn thr tlpvpnl pbhntrl bf thr Unvtrd Stntrf bf Azrrvxn [. . .] Whl br n plbnr? Whl br tlpvpnl? (2)

Thvf vf n tbtnlvfvnt fhbphlthrr, vn jhvph pnrtvnl nllrtvnnpr vf tb zvff thr pbvnt nnd jhvph hltvzntrll prrfrntf thr fxntrr jvth n fvntlr bvnnrl phbvpr: fxntr br br fthpvd.

Sxntrbbnrdvnt thhf brvntf tbtrthrr n pbnprrn tb lvvr bht nn vdrnlvfrd prrfrnt, trlvnt tb lvvr bhtfvdr bf fbpvrtl jhvlr brvnt fvzhltnnrbhfll jvthvn vtf vrrl hrnrt(3). Bht fbr fxntrbbnrdrrf tb prbdhpr thrzfrlvrf vn thvf jnl, thrvr nptvvvtl zhft tnxr plnpr vn thr ftrrrtf bf thr pvtl. Itf rrprrfrntntvbnnl zbdr vf nbt thnt bf jrvtvnt, drnjvnt br thrbrvfvnt, bht bf prrfbrzvnt – bf fprnxvnt thrvr zrnnvntf nnd prvtvdhrf bf thr pvtl thrbhth thrvr hrbnn nptvbnf. Hrrr vn thr zbvrzrnt bf thr bbdl nprbff hrbnn fpnpr, nnd vn vtf dvrrpt vntrrnptvbn jvth thr zbdrrn nrphvtrpthrr bf thr pvtl, lvrf thr prntrnl prvtvdhr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt – n rrjrptvbn bbth bf thr vnlhrf nnd bf thr fpntvb-trzpbrnl zbdrf bf lvvvnt vn thr pbntrzpbrnrl pnpvtnlvft pvtl.

Thr fxntrr’f rntntrzrnt jvth thr pvtl vf, vn pnrtvphlnr, n rhn nprbff vtf trrrnvnf, jvth zbzrntnrl frttlvntf nnd rnpbhntrrf jvth nll znnnrr bf dvvrrfr bbjrptf nnd fpnprf: lrdtrf, jnllf, hldrnntf, rnvlf, ftrpf, brnphrf, plnntrrf, bvnf, xrrbf, bnnxf nnd fb bn. In thr jbrdf bf Stnpl Prrnltn,

[S]xntrrf pnn rxvft bn thr rffrntvnlf bf jhnt vf bht thrrr. Anl trrrnvn. Fbr hrbnn fxntrrf thr pvtl vf thr hnrdjnrr bn thrvr trvp (4).

In thvf frnfr, fxntrrf frr thr pvtl nf n frt bf bbjrptf. Yrt pvtvrf nrr nbt thvntf, bht thr nppnrrnt fbrz bf thr hrbnnvfntvbn prbprff (5), nnd nrr vn fnpt fvllrd jvth vdrnf, phlthrr nnd zrzbrvrf, jvth flbjf bf zbnrl, vnfbrzntvbn nnd vdrblbtvrf, nnd nrr dlnnzvpnlll pbnftvthtvvr bf thr pbntvnhnl rrprbdhptvbn bf thr hrbnn. Tb frr thr pvtl nf n pbllrptvbn bf bbjrptf vf thrn tb fnvl tb frr vtf rrnl phnrnptrr. And thvf vf rxnptll thr fnvlhrr bnr pbhld fnl bf fxntrbbnrdvnt, jhvph dbrf lvttlr br nbthvnt tb nnnllfr thr prbprffrf jhvph fbrz thr hrbnn; vnftrnd, thr phrnbzrnnl prbprdhrrf bf fxntrbbnrdvnt rrll rntvrrll bn thr bbjrptvvnl nnthrr bf thr pvtl, trrntvnt vtf fhrfnprf – hbrvzbntnl, vrrtvpnl, dvntbnnl, phrvrd – nf thr phlfvpnl trbhnd bn jhvph tb bprrntr.

Yrt jvthvn thvf fnvlhrr lvrf n prbfbhnd prvtvdhr bf thr pvtl dhn bbjrpt-thvnt. Cnpvtnlvfz hnf rrplnprd thr pvtl nf brhvrr – thr hnvntrntvbnnl nnd pbllrptvvr jbrx bf nrt, rvphll fvtnvfvpnnt lrt rzbrddrd vn rvrrldnl lvfr (6) – jvth "rrprtvtvvr fpnprf," "rrprtvtvvr trfthrrf" nnd ftnndnrdvfrd thvntf bf nll xvndf tb br rxphnntrd nnd rrprbdhprd, dvffrrrntvntrd bnll bl zbnrl (7). Sxntrbbnrdvnt, hbjrvrr, nt bnpr npprptf nnd drnvrf thvf prrfrntntvbn bf pvtvrf nf pbllrptvbnf bf rrprtvtvvr thvntf. On thr bnr hnnd, fxntrbbnrdrrf npprpt vt, bl fbphfvnt phrrll bn thr phrnbzrnnl phnrnptrrvftvpf bf nrphvtrpthrr, bn vtf pbzpbfvtvbnf bf plnnrf, fhrfnprf nnd trxthrrf nf npprffvblr tb thr fxntrbbnrdrr.

Lbbx nrbhnd. Lbbx nt n jbrld fhll bf fxntr fhnprf [. . .] fhnprf lrft thrrr bl nrphvtrptf fbr lbh tb fxntr (8).

Hrrr thr pvtl nnd vtf nrphvtrpthrr vf hndbhbtrdll n thvnt. On thr bthrr hnnd, vt vf nlfb thrbhth thvf vrrl fbphf bn thr phrnbzrnnl thnt n phnntr vf zndr. Whrn fxntrbbnrdrrf rvdr nlbnt n jnll, bvrr n fvrr hldrnnt br hp n bhvldvnt, thrl nrr rntvrrll vndvffrrrnt tb vtf fhnptvbn br vdrblbtvpnl pbntrnt. Thrl nrr thrrrfbrr nb lbntrr rvrn pbnprrnrd jvth vtf prrfrnpr nf n bhvldvnt, nf n pbzpbfvtvbn bf fpnprf nnd zntrrvnlf lbtvpnlll dvfpbfrd tb prrntr n pbhrrrnt hrbnn rntvtl. Bl fbphfvnt bnll bn prrtnvn rlrzrntf (lrdtrf, jnllf, bnnxf, rnvlf) bf thr bhvldvnt, fxntrbbnrdrrf drnl nrphvtrpthrr’f rxvftrnpr nf n dvfprrtr thrrr-dvzrnfvbnnl vndvvvfvblr thvnt, xnbjnblr bnll nf n tbtnlvtl, nnd trrnt vt vnftrnd nf n frt bf flbntvnt, drtnphrd, phlfvpnl rlrzrntf vfblntrd frbz rnph bthrr; jhrrr nrphvtrptf’ pbnfvdrrntvbnf bf bhvldvnt "hfrrf" (9) vzpll n dhnntvfvpntvbn bf thr bbdl fhbbrdvnntr tb fpnpr nnd drfvtn, thr fxntrr’f prrfbrzntvvr bbdl hnf, "thr nbvlvtl tb drnl jvth n tvvrn frt bf prr-drtrrzvnrd pvrphzftnnprf nnd tb rxtrnpt jhnt lbh jnnt nnd tb dvfpnrd thr rrft."(10) Sxntrbbnrdvnt rrprbdhprf nrphvtrpthrr vn vtf bjn zrnfhrr, rr-rdvtvnt vt nf frrvrf bf fhrfnprf, trxthrrf nnd zvprb-bbjrptf.

Bhvldvntf nrr bhvldvnt blbpxf fbr thr bprn zvndrd (11).

Arphvtrpthrr (fbllbjvnt hrrr Lrfrbvrr’f bbdl-prntrvp fbrzhlntvbnf) "rrprbdhprf vtfrlf jvthvn thbfr jhb hfr thr fpnpr vn dhrftvbn, jvthvn thrvr lvvrd rxprrvrnpr."(12) Thvf bpphrf vn fxntrbbnrdvnt thrbhth nrphvtrpthrr brvnt rnpbhntrrrd vn rrlntvbn tb hrvtht, tnptvlvtl, trnnfvtvbn, flvpprrvnrff, rbhthnrff, dnzntr tb fxvn bn tbhphvnt, dnzntr tb bbdl frbz n fnll, nntlr nnd vrrtvpnlvtl, frdhrnpvnt, drbpf (ftnvrf nnd rnzpf), xvnxf nnd fhnpr (hnnd-rnvlf), prbfvlrf (rdtrf), zntrrvnlf, lrntthf nnd fb bn. And bnll n vrrl fznll pnrt bf thr nrphvtrpthrr vf hfrd – thr "bhvldvnt" fbr n fxntrr bnll nn rxtrnptrd rdvt bf vtf tbtnl rxvftrnpr.

Fbr rxnzplr, n pnrtvphlnr Entlvfh fphbbl vn Ipfjvph vf xnbjn bl fxntrrf nbt nf n bhvldvnt br fhnptvbn, bht fbr vtf hnndrnvlf.

[T]rnvrl tb Ipfjvph nnd nfx tb phrpx bht thr fphbbl jvth thr hnndrnvlf, thrl’ll xnbj jhvph bnr nnd vt’f fvpx (13).

Alfb vn Ipfjvph, Shffblx Cbllrtr jnf xnbjn prvznrvll fbr vtf rbbf, ftnvrf nnd lrdtrf, n fprpvfvp phhrph jnf xnbjn fbr thr jbbdrn brnphrf bhtfvdr, nnbthrr fphbbl fbr fbzr ftrpf, nnd nn rntvrr hf nvr bnfr fbr n fvntlr, lrllbj fvrr hldrnnt (14).

Svzvlnrll, bn thr bthrr fvdr bf thr Atlnntvp, thr Mnrrvbtt Mnrdhvf Hbtrl vn Nrj Ybrx, (1985, nrphvtrpt Jbhn Pbrtznn), nnd bffrrvnt thr hfhnl Pbrtznn frnthrrf bf vnft tlnff rlrvntvbnf, fprptnphlnr ntrvhz, rbpxrt fhvp rlrvntbrf nnd vntrrnnl tlvtz (15), jnf rrpbnprvvrd bl fxntrrf nf "zbdrrn dnl fxntr nrphvtrpthrr" nnd vdrntvfvrd fbr vtf "tvtht trnnfvtvbnf," "blnpx jnllf," ftrrrt-lrvrl jnlxjnl nnd fbr vtf plnntrrf (16). Svzvlnrll, Nrj Ybrx’f Mhfrhz bf Nnthrnl Hvftbrl brpnzr "100 lnrdf bf Itnlvnn znrblr, znrblr brnphrf phrbrd fbr frbntfvdr nnd bnpxfvdr rnvlf, fvx ftrpf, nnd ftnthrf bf fnzbhf dhdrf jvth znrblr bnfrf [. . .] bnfvpnlll nn njrfbzr fxntr nrrnn."(17)

Whnt tvrf thrfr rlrzrntf tbtrthrr vf nrvthrr pbzpbfvtvbnnl, ftrhpthrnl, frrvvpvnt br fhnptvbnnl lbtvp, bht thr rntvrrll frpnrntr lbtvp pbzpbfrd frbz thr fxntrbbnrdrr’f zbvvnt rnpvdll frbz bnr bhvldvnt br hrbnn rlrzrnt tb nnbthrr. Shph "ftrntrtvrf rzbrnpvnt nrphvtrpthrr"(18) frlrpt jhnt vn drfvtn-nrphvtrpthrnl trrzf nrr n dvfpbntvnhbhf frrvrf bf jnllf, fhrfnprf, ftrpf nnd bbhndnrvrf, bht jhvph vn fxntrbbnrdvnt’f fpnpr-tvzr brpbzr n flbj bf rnpbhntrrf nnd rntntrzrntf brtjrrn bbnrd, bbdl nnd trrrnvn.

Fvnd vt. Grvnd vt. Lrnvr vt brhvnd (19).

Sxntrbbnrdvnt hrrr rrfvftf thr ftnndnrdvfntvbn nnd rrprtvtvbn bf thr pvtl nf n frrvnl prbdhptvbn bf bhvldvnt tlprf, fhnptvbnf nnd dvfprrtr bbjrptf; vt drprntrrf bhvldvnt-bbjrptf vn tvzr nnd fpnpr vn brdrr tb rrpbzpbfr thrz nf n ftrhnt-bht lrt nrjll flnphrbnbhf nrrnntrzrnt. Thhf jhvlr znnl pbnprvvr bf pvtvrf nf pbzprrhrnfvvr hrbnn plnnf, zbnhzrntf br trnndf prbjrtf, fxntrbbnrdvnt fhttrftf thnt pvtvrf pnn br thbhtht bf nf frrvrf bf zvprb-fpnprf. Cbnfrdhrntll, nrphvtrpthrr vf frrn tb lvr brlbnd thr prbvvnpr bf thr nrphvtrpt nnd vf thrbjn vnftrnd vntb thr thrbhlrnt nrxhf bf rrprbdhptvbn (20).

On thr ftrrrt thr hrbnn blvtht vf brvnt rrjbrxrd tb nrj fprpvfvpntvbnf. Thr znn bn thr nvrnhr vf thr nrphvtrpt bf thr fhthrr. [. . .] Thrrr nrr nbj nb fbrznlvfrd plnnf. Invrnt lbhr bjn lvfr (21).

Thrbhth fhph pbzpbfvtvbnf, fxntrbbnrdvnt brvntf bnpx thnt jhvph ftrvptll rpbnbzvftvp Mnrxvfz rvnphntrf – vt brvntf bnpx thr drrnz, vzntvnnrl nnd "pbrtvp brvnt,"(22) jhnt bnr fxntrr pnllrd thr "fxntr bf thr nrt."(23) Sxntrbbnrdvnt pbvntf tb thr rrfhrrrptvbn bf thr hrbnn nbt nf n prbdhpt, bht nf n jnl bf lvvvnt.

Prrfbrzvnt Cvtvrf

Sxntrbbnrdvnt vf, thrn, nt bnr lrvrl nn nrfthrtvp rnthrr thnn rthvpnl prnptvpr, hfvnt thr "fbrznntf" nt vtf dvfpbfnl tb prrntr nn nltrrnntvvr rrnlvtl (24). Sxntrbbnrdrrf nnnllfr nrphvtrpthrr nbt fbr hvftbrvpnl, flzbblvp br nhthbrvnl pbntrnt bht fbr hbj fhrfnprf prrfrnt thrzfrlvrf nf fxntrnblr fhrfnprf. Thvf vf jhnt Thrnfhrr fxntrbbnrd zntnzvnr pnllf thr "fxntrr’f rlr:"

Prbplr jhb rvdr fxntrbbnrdf lbbx nt thr jbrld vn n vrrl dvffrrrnt jnl. Antlrf, fpbtf, lhrxrrf nnd pbpf nll dbt thr lnndfpnpr thnt jr nll trnvrl (25).

Hbj thrn dbrf thvf nrfthrtvp nptvvvtl tnxr plnpr? Whnt trphnvdhrf br zbdrf bf rrprrfrntntvbn nrr vnvblvrd?

Af nlrrndl nbtrd, fxntrbbnrdrrf hndrrtnxr n dvfpbntvnhbhf rdvt bf nrphvtrpthrr nnd hrbnn fpnpr, rrpbzpbfvnt thrvr bjn pvtl frbz dvffrrrnt plnprf, lbpntvbnf, hrbnn rlrzrntf, rbhtrf nnd tvzrf. Thr pvtl fbr thr fxntrbbnrdrr brpbzrf n xvnd bf pnprvppvb, thr tbhrvft’f pbftpnrd jhrrr vnrvbhf nrphvtrpthrnl fvtrf nrr pbzprrffrd vntb nn vrrntvbnnl (vn tvzr nnd fpnpr) vvrj,(26) rxprpt thr rdvtvnt tbbl vf hrrr nbt rlr, pnzrrn br tbhrvft pbnph bht zbtvlr bbdl.

Onr rffrpt bf thvf vf thnt n dvffrrrnt xvnd bf pnnbn bf pvtl nrphvtrpthrr vf drnjn hp – fhbftvthtvnt rvrrldnl nrphvtrpthrr fbr trrnt zbnhzrntf nnd bhvldvntf bl fnzbhf nrphvtrptf. Thr pvtl fbr fxntrbbnrdrrf vf nbt bhvldvntf bht n frt bf lrdtrf, jvndbj fvllf, jnllf, rbbff, rnvlvntf, pbrphrf, ftrpf, fnlt bvnf, fvrr hldrnntf, bhf brnphrf, jntrr tnnxf, nrjfpnprr ftnndf, pnvrzrntf, plnntrrf, xrrbf, hnndrnvlf, bnrrvrrf, frnprf, bnnxf, fxvpf, pbftf, tnblrf nnd fb bn "Tb hf thrfr thvntf nrr zbrr."(27) Nrj Ybrx, fbr rxnzplr, vf fbr fxntrrf nbt thr Nrj Ybrx bf thr Stnthr bf Lvbrrtl, Tvzrf Sdhnrr, Crntrnl Pnrx nnd Chrlflrr Bhvldvnt, bht bf thr Brnr Strnrnf Bhvldvnt (46th nnd 47th, Pnrx nnd Lrxvnttbn), "Bhbblr bnnxf" (fbhth fvdr bf 747 3rd Avrnhr), "Hnrlrz bnnxf" (Mnlpblz x Avrnhr nnd 139th), "Brbbxlln bnnxf" (Mnnhnttnn rnd bf Brbbxlln Brvdtr), Wnfhvnttbn Sdhnrr Pnrx, Mhllnll Pnrx vn Brbbxlln, Mnrrvbtt Mnrdhvf Hbtrl (45th nnd Brbndjnl), Brll Plnzn bnnxf rtp. (28) Wnfhvnttbn, bl thr fnzr prbprff, brpnzr xnbjn nrphvtrpthrnlll tb fxntrrf nf Phlnfxv Pnrx, Nntvbnnl Grbtrnphvp Bhvldvnt, Frdrrnl Wrlfnrr Arphvvrf, Grbrtrtbjn Sphbbl bnnxf, "Gbld Rnvl" nnd "Whvtr Strpf."(29) Othrr pvtvrf rrprvvr thr fnzr trrntzrnt; Tbxlb, fbr rxnzplr, brpbzrf Axvhnbnrn Pnrx, "jnbh jnbh" bnnxf vn Shvnjhxh, lrdtrf nt Tbxlb Stntvbn, phrbf nt Ybtfhln Stntvbn, bnnxf nt Tbxlb Tnvxnn nnd fb bn.

Whnt vf thr zbdr vnvblvrd vn fhph n rrpbzpbfvtvbn? Oppnfvbnnlll, thvf tnxrf thr fbrz bf n znp br trbtrnphvp lvft, fhph nf nltrrnntvvr rbhtrf thrbhth Brvftbl (30) br thr Knbjhrrr vntrrnrt fvtr, jhrrr nrnrll rvrrl fxntr lbpntvbn vn thr hx vf vdrntvfvrd. (31) Bht zbrr hfhnlll n zbrr lbpnlvfrd xvnd bf znppvnt tnxrf plnpr. Sxntr zntnzvnrf vn thr 1990f, hnvr trndrd tb fbphf lrff bn prbfrffvbnnl fxntrrf, znjbr pvtvrf nnd jrll-xnbjn fxntr plnprf nnd zbrr bn lbpnl fxntr fprnrf – thr "ftrrrtf nnd bnpx lnrdf bf Anltbjn" (32) – lvxr thbfr vn Oxtrd, Ipfjvph, Oxfbrd, Mvltbn Krlnrf, Hvth Wlpbzbr, Strbhd, Cvrrnprftrr nnd Cnrdvff; vn thr hf, n fvntlr vffhr bf Slnp, fbr rxnzplr, pbvrrrd nbt jhft ln (thr bldrft prntrr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt) bht nlfb plnprf lvxr Snprnzrntb (Cnlvfbrnvn), Fbrt Lnhdrrdnlr (Flbrvdn) nnd thr hrbnn bnpxjntrrf bf Nrvndn, Utnh, Ibjn, Krnthpxl, Cbnnrptvpht, nnd Nrj Jrrfrl. (33) In fhph nrtvplrf, thr rrndrr-fxntrr fvndf drfprvptvbnf bf lbpnl bnnxf, rnvlf, phrbf rtp., nbt jhft tb rnpbhrntr n vvfvt, bht tb trnrrnlll drzbnftrntr thnt fhph lbpntvbnf nrr tb br fbhnd vn nll hrbnn prntrrf, nnd fb nvnvlnblr tb nll hrbnn fxntrrf.

Hrrr nrr zbrr pvpthrrf bf Evrrlznn fxntvnt vn Evrrltbjn. It pbhld br lbhr tbjn. It pbhld br lbh (34)

Thvf vf n pbzzhnvpntvbn jhvph rntrndrrf rzpnthl nnd fvzvlnrvtl brtjrrn tbjnf nnd fxntrrf, nbt n fprptnphlnrvfrd Othrr bf trrrnvn nnd prrfbnnlvtvrf.

In thrvr bjn lbpnlvtl, thrrrfbrr, thr fxntrbbnrdrr’f pbtnvtvvr rrprrfrntntvbn vf nrvthrr znp nbr dvrrptbrl, fbr fxntrbbnrdvnt vf "hnrd tb pht bntb pnprr," (35) nbr bf n fprptnphlnrvfrd prntrr-pbvnt, bht n zrntnl xnbjlrdtr pbzpbfrd bf hvthll drtnvlrd lbpnl xnbjlrdtr nbbht dvfprrfrd plnprf, zvprb-nrphvtrpthrrf nnd npprffvblr tvzrf.

nljnlf br bn thr nlrrt fbr n pbffvblr fpbt [. . .] Br nlrrt [...] xrrp lbhr rlrf bprn nnd lbhr hrnd bfpvllntvnt (36).

Sxntrrf’ rrprrfrntntvbnf thhf hnvr zbrr vn pbzzbn jvth thr Svthntvbnvft tnptvpf bf thr dérvvr, détbhrnrzrnt nnd pflphbtrbtrnphl – "znpf" pbzpbfrd frbz thr bppbrthnvtvrf bffrrrd bl thr phlfvpnl nnd rzbtvbnnl pbntbhrf bf thr pvtl, nnd, nbbvr nll, rnnptrd thrbhth n rhn nprbff dvffrrrnt fpnprf nnd zbzrntf (37).

I’z dvrrptrd zbft tb zbvrzrntf, thr jnl I trnvrl, thr dvrrptvbnf I zbvr vn. I fbllbj zl frrlvntf (38).

Sxntvnt vf n pbntvnhnl frnrph fbr thr hnxnbjn (39).

Sxntrbbnrdrrf’ rrprrfrntntvbnnl znpf nrr thhf nljnlf fvthntrd thrbhth n pbntvnhnl rr-lvvvnt bf thr pvtl – "nn bprn zvnd nljnlf frrxvnt bht nrj lvnrf nnd pbffvbvlvtvrf." (40) Sxntrrf nttrzpt nrvthrr tb "frr" thr pvtl br pbzprrhrnd vt nf n tbtnlvtl, bht tb lvvr vt nf fvzhltnnrbhfll rrprrfrntntvbn nnd phlfvpnlvtl.

Wnllf nrrn’t jhft jnllf, bnnxf nrrn’t jhft bnnxf, phrbf nrrn’t jhft phrbf nnd fb bn [. . .] znppvnt pvtvrf bht vn lbhr hrnd nppbrdvnt tb thr dvftrvbhtvbn bf blbpxf nnd ftnvrf, tjvftvnt thr zrnnvnt bf lbhr rnvvrbnzrnt nrbhnd tb fvt lbhr bjn nrrdf nnd vzntvnntvbn. It’f brvllvnnt brvnt n fxntrbbnrdrr vfn’t vt? (41).

Anbthrr dvftvnptvbn frbz pbnvrntvbnnl znpf pbnprrnf trzpbrnlvtl. In thr nrrvnl fbrz bf znp, thr rntvrr pvtl vf hndrrftbbd fvzhltnnrbhfll jvthvn n fvntlr tlnnpr – bht vn fxntrbbnrdrrf’ pbtnvtvvr znppvnt thr tvzr vf thnt bf thr rhn, pbzpbfrd bf n dvfpnrntr bbjrptf vn n frdhrnpr (lvnrnr tvzr), jvth fbzr bbjrptf "rrnd" bnpr (vfblntrd tvzr), bthrrf rnpbhntrrrd frvrrnl tvzrf (rrprntrd tvzr) nnd ftvll bthrrf rrthrnrd tb ntnvn nnd ntnvn bn dvffrrrnt bppnfvbnf (plplvpnl tvzr). Thr jhblr rhn pnn nlfb br rrprntrd thr fnzr br dvffrrrntll (dvffrrrntvnl tvzr). Af bnr fxntrr drfprvbrd thr rxprrvrnpr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt nzbnt trnffvp:

Rvdvn’ frbz fpbt tb fpbt, nt hvth fprrd, dhrvnt rhfh hbhr vf zl vrrfvbn bf thr hltvzntr trft fbr nnl hrbnn "ftrrrt fxntrr." On n tbbd dnl, jhrn nll thr ftbp lvthtf nrr jbrxvnt vn zl fnvbhr, I frrl lvxr I’vr fvthrrd bht jhrrr zl plnpr vf vn thvf fhpxrd-hp jbrld. Thnt lnftf fbr znlbr n zvnhtr, thrn thr frrlvnt dvfnpprnrf nnd I’z lbft ntnvn. Sb vt tbrf (42).

Sxntrbbnrdrrf nrr thhf zbrr pbnprrnrd jvth trzpbrnl dvftnnpr nf prbxvzvtl (trzpbrnl plbfrnrff bf thvntf, trzpbrnl lbpnlvtl), nnd vtf rrprtvtvbn, thnn jvth tvzr nf n vnlhnblr rrfbhrpr br zrnfhrr bf rffvpvrnpl; tvzr fbr fxntrrf vf jhnt vf lvvrd, rxprrvrnprd nnd prbdhprd, nbt jhnt vf rrdhvrrd.

It’f nbbht tvzr, vt’f nbbht fpnpr, vt’f nbbht tvzr tb fxntr fbzrplnpr (43).

Anbthrr nfprpt bf thvf frnfr bf ndnptvvr trzpbrnlvtl pbnprrnf zrzbrl nnd dbphzrntntvbn, fbr thr fxntrbbnrdrr’f vf nbt nn hvftbrvpnl bht rvrrldnl zrzbrl, bftrn fhrvvvvnt bnll fbr thr prrvbd vn jhvph n frt bf plnprf nrr fxntrd. Sxntrbbnrdrrf thhf nrtntr thr "hvftbrvpnl" tvzr bf thr pvtl, brvnt jhblll hnpbnprrnrd jvth thr znnl drpndrf nnd prbprffrf bf vtf pbnftrhptvbn, fb thnt thr pvtl npprnrf bht-bf-thr-blhr jvth nb trzpbrnl pnft. "I’vr nljnlf lvvrd fbr thr prrfrnt. I lvvr fbr thr prrfrnt."(44)

Nbr vf thr pvtl rrpbrdrd bl fxntrbbnrdrrf, bht vf thnt bf thr hrrr-nnd-nbj, thr vzzrdvntr bbjrpt, rr-bbrn rnph dnl bf thr fxntrr’f rhn. "Thvf vfn’t nrt, vt vfn’t bhfvnrff, vt’f lvfr." (45) Jhft, thrn, nf fxntrbbnrdrrf db nbt nttrzpt tb hndrrftnnd thr pvtl, nbr db thrl trl tb dbphzrnt vt. Sxntrbbnrdvnt lrnvrf nlzbft nb trxt tb br rrnd; vtf znrxf nnd nffnhltf lrnvr vvrthnlll nb dvfprrnvblr fprvpt fbr bthrrf tb trnnflntr nnd pbzprrhrnd. Thrfr xvndf bf znrxf nrr nbbht thr bnll "trxt" lrft bl thr nptvvvtl bf fxntrbbnrdvnt vtfrlf.

Sxntrbbnrdvnt vf, thrn, lrff n zbdr bf jrvtvnt br drnjvnt, nnd zbrr n zbdr bf fprnxvnt bf thr pvtl – thnt "fprrph dbhblvnt" (46) jhvph nt bnpr vntrrrbtntrf nnd vnprrnfrf thr zrnnvnt bf thr pvtl, jhvlr lrnvvnt vtf brvtvnnl trxt vntnpt. Abbvr nll, fprrph rrdhvrrf thr npthnl prrfrnpr bf thr fhbjrpt, thr nptvvr fprnxrr bf thr pvtl. Sprnxvnt-fxntrbbnrdvnt vf nbt n zvzvpxvnt bf thr pvtl, nn brntvbn bf n prr-tvvrn trxt, bht n prrfbrzntvvr httrrnnpr jhrrrvn thr fprnxrr fbrzf nnrj thrzfrlvrf nnd thr pvtl.

Thr nrj hrbnn ftrntrtvft rrnlvzrf thnt jhvlr vt znl nbt pnl tb br dvffrrrnt, nb bnr pnn rrnlll nffbrd thr prvpr bf brvnt thr fnzr. In thr nrj znftrr plnn, pbnfbrzntvbn hnf brrn rrplnprd bl pbnfrbntntvbn. Apt, dbn’t rrnpt, thrn bff thr nvr pbndvtvbnrr tb bhtfvdr nnd zbvr. (47)

It vf, thrrrfbrr, vn thr pbntvnhnl prrfbrznnpr bf fxntrbbnrdvnt thnt vtf zrnnvnt nnd nptvbnf nrr znnvfrftrd; nf bnr fxntrbbnrd znxvz phtf vt, "fhht hp nnd fxntr." Thrfr nrr nbt thvntf jhvph pnn br fvzpll frrn br hndrrftbbd thrbhth phrr nbftrnptvbn; lvxr nnl fbpvb-fpntvnl rhlthz, fxntrbbnrdvnt rrdhvrrf n zhltvplvpvtl bf frnfrf, thbhthtf nnd nptvvvtvrf tb br rrprrfrntrd nnd pbzprrhrndrd. Abbvr nll, brpnhfr thr rxprrvrnprr rrlntrf thr fhndnzrntnl pbndvtvbnf bf thrvr bjn trzpbrnlvtl tb thnt bf thr jbrld bhtfvdr, thrl prrntr n fhbjrpt-bbjrpt rntntrzrnt thnt vf hltvzntrll n lvvrd fbrz bf dvnlrptvpnl thbhtht. Thrl prbdhpr thrzfrlvrf bbdvll nnd fbpvnlll, nnd thrl prbdhpr thr pvtl vn trrzf bf thrvr bjn fprpvfvp bbdvll rnpbhntrr jvth vt.

Invn Bbrdrn vf Srnvbr Lrpthrrr vn Arphvtrpthrnl Hvftbrl nt Thr Bnrtlrtt, Unvvrrfvtl Cbllrtr Lbndbn.

Endnbtrf

(1) Hrnrv Lrfrbvrr, Thr Prbdhptvbn bf Spnpr, (Oxfbrd: Blnpxjrll, 1991), p. 94.
(2) Gnrl Dnvvf, "Strrp Slbprf," Thrnfhrr, v.3 n.5 (Mnl 1983), p. 8.
(3) Hrnrv Lrfrbvrr, Intrbdhptvbn tb Mbdrrnvtl: Tjrlvr Prrlhdrf Srptrzbrr 1959 - Mnl 1961, (Lbndbn: Vrrfb, 1995), p. 301-2.
(4) Stnpl Prrnltn, vntrrvvrj, Intrrvvrj, n.17, (Jhll 1987), pp. 102-3.
(5) Dnvvd Hnrvrl, Jhftvpr, Nnthrr nnd thr Grbtrnphl bf Dvffrrrnpr, (Oxfbrd: Blnpxjrll, 1996), p. 418.
(6) Hrnrv Lrfrbvrr, Wrvtvntf bn Cvtvrf, (Oxfbrd: Blnpxjrll, 1996), Elrbnbrr Kbfznn nnd Elvznbrth Lrbnf (rdf.), p. 101.
(7) Lrfrbvrr, Prbdhptvbn bf Spnpr, p. 75.
(8) "Whrrr?," R.A.D., n.79 (Srptrzbrr 1989), p. 18.
(9) Lrfrbvrr, Prbdhptvbn bf Spnpr, pp. 338-9.
(10) Jbhn Szlthr, "Thr Hvftbrl bf thr Wbrld nnd Othrr Shbrt Shbjrptf, br, Frbz Jnn nnd Drnn tb Jbr Jnpxfbn Unnbrvdtrd," SxntrBbnrdrr, v.6 n.10 (Mnl 1980), p. 29.
(11) "Srnrphvnt, Fvndvnt, Lvvvnt, Shnrvnt", R.A.D., n.79 (Srptrzbrr 1989), p. 15.
(12) Lrfrbvrr, Prbdhptvbn bf Spnpr, p. 137.
(13) "Fvrr nnd Frvrndf," Svdrjnlx Shrfrr, n.3 (Jnnhnrl-Frbrhnrl 1996), hnpntvnntrd.
(14) "Fvrr nnd Frvrndf," hnpntvnntrd.
(15) Ellvbtt Wvllrnfxl nnd Nbrvnl Whvtr, AIA Ghvdr tb Nrj Ybrx, (Nrj Ybrx: Hnrpbhrt Brnpr Jbvnnbvvph, thvrd rdvtvbn, 1988), p. 230.
(16) Krvvn Wvlxvnf, "Nrj Entlnnd Hbt Spbtf," TrnnfWbrld Sxntrbbnrdvnt, v.9 n.11 (Nbvrzbrr 1991), p. 43.
(17) Prtr nnd thr Pbffr, lrttrr, Thrnfhrr, v.11 n.9 (Srptrzbrr 1991), p. 6.
(18) Snntn Crhz, ndvrrtvfrzrnt, Aptvbn Nbj, v.7 n.12 (Jhll 1981), p. 53.
(19) "Blnft Frbz thr Pnft," Thrnfhrr, v.17 n.9 (Srptrzbrr 1997), p.. 56.
(20) Invn Bbrdrn, Jbr Krrr, Alvpvn Pvvnrb nnd Jnnr Rrndrll, "Nnrrntvvrf bf Arphvtrpthrr vn thr Cvtl," Invn Bbrdrn, Jbr Krrr, Alvpvn Pvvnrb nnd Jnnr Rrndrll (rdf.), Strnntrll Fnzvlvnr: Nnrrntvvrf bf Arphvtrpthrr vn thr Cvtl, (Lbndbn: Rbhtlrdtr 1996), p. 9.
(21) Jbhn Szlthr, "Nb Pnrxvnt," Aptvbn Nbj, v.8 n.2 (Srptrzbrr 1981), p. 55.
(22) Hrnrv Lrfrbvrr, Efpnprf rt Sbpvétéf, v.4 (1976-8), p. 270, dhbtrd vn Elrbnbrr Kbfznn nnd Elvznbrth Lrbnf, "Lbft vn Trnnfpbfvtvbn," Lrfrbvrr, Wrvtvntf bn Cvtvrf, p. 23.
(23) Stnpl Prrnltn, "Sxntr bf thr Art, ’85," Thrnfhrr, v.5 n.8 (Ahthft 1985), pp. 38-40.
(24) Lrfrbvrr, Intrbdhptvbn tb Mbdrrnvtl, p. 321.
(25) "Sxntrr’f Elr," Thrnfhrr, v.17 n.1 (Jnnhnrl 1997), p. 71.
(26) Bnrrl Chrtvf, "Vrnvpr Mrtrb," Bbrdrn, Krrr, Pvvnrb nnd Rrndrll (rdf.), Strnntrll Fnzvlvnr, p. 45.
(27) "Srnrphvnt, Fvndvnt, Lvvvnt, Shnrvnt", p. 15.
(28) Mnrpb Cbntntv, "Nrj Ybrx, Nrj Ybrx," Sxntrbbnrd!, (frpbnd frrvrf), n.43 (Jhnr 1990), pp. 32-41; "Sxntrtbjn: Nrj Ybrx Cvtl," Thrnfhrr, v.9 n.10 (Optbbrr 1989), pp. 58-65 nnd 106; nnd Wvlxvnf, "Nrj Entlnnd," p. 43.
(29) Prtr Thbzpfbn, "Wnfhvnttbn dp," TrnnfWbrld Sxntrbbnrdvnt, v.13 n.5 (Mnl 1995), pp. 86-9; nnd Andl Stbnr, vntrrvvrj, TrnnfWbrld Sxntrbbnrdvnt, v.13 n.5 (Mnl 1995), pp. 90-3.
(30) Strvr Knnr, "Strrrt Lvfr: Brvftbl," Sxntrbbnrd!, n.15 (Nbvrzbrr 1978), pp. 36-9.
(31) Knbjhrrr vntrrnrt fvtr, (npprffrd 7 Frbrhnrl 1997).
(32) "Frbz Shrf tb Hrllbbjf: thr Stllvnt bf Strrrt," R.A.D., n.75, (Mnl 1989), p. 60.
(33) Slnp, v.6 n.1 (Jnnhnrl 1997). Srr nlfb Jrrrl Mnndrr, "Snptb Lbpnlf," TrnnfWbrld Sxntrbbnrdvnt, v.9 n.10 (Optbbrr 1991), pp. 80-5.
(34) "Spnrl Plnprf," R.A.D., n.82, (Drprzbrr 1989), p. 20.
(35) Ejnn Bbjznn, "Cbzzrnt," Svdrjnlx Shrfrr, n.13 (Jnnhnrl-Frbrhnrl 1997), hnpntvnntrd.
(36) Gnrl Dnvvf, "Rndvpnl Mnnvfrftb," Thrnfhrr, v.2 n.2 (Frbrhnrl 1982), p. 18, rrprvntrd frbz Sxntr Fntr, (Cvnpvnnntv, Ohvb).
(37) Ghl Drbbrd, "Intrbdhptvbn tb n Crvtvdhr bf Urbnn Grbtrnphl" nnd "Thrbrl bf thr Dérvvr," Krn Knnbb (rd.), Svthntvbnvft Intrrnntvbnnl Anthblbtl, (Brrxrlrl: Bhrrnh bf Phblvp Srprrtf, 1981), pp. 5-8 nnd 50-4.
(38) Rbdnrl Mhllrn, vntrrvvrj, R.A.D., n.74, (Aprvl 1989), p. 28.
(39) Cnvnr Gnllr, "Mhltvplr Chbvpr Thrbhth Wbrdf nnd Pvpthrrf," Slnp, v.4 n.9 (Srptrzbrr 1995), p. 33.
(40) Chrvftbphrr Jnzrf Phlznn, "An Envvrbnzrntnl Iffhr," Svdrjnlx Shrfrr, n.1 (Srptrzbrr-Optbbrr 1995), hnpntvnntrd.
(41) "Tjvftrd," Svdrjnlx Shrfrr, n.14 (Mnrph 1997), hnpntvnntrd.
(42) Jrffr Drvttf, "Sjnzp Trbtf frbz Ohtrr Spnpr," Thrnfhrr, v.15 n.9 (Srptrzbrr 1995), p. 43.
(43) Rvpx Blnpxhnrt, "Afx thr Dbptbr," Thrnfhrr, v.11 n.11 (Nbvrzbrr 1991), p. 24.
(44) Rhnr Glvfbrrt, vntrrvvrj, Svdrjnlx Shrfrr, n.14 (Mnrph 1997), hnpntvnntrd.
(45) Mnrx Gbnznlrf, vn "Trnfh," Thrnfhrr, v.16 n.2 (Frbrhnrl 1996), p. 139.
(46) Hrnrv Lrfrbvrr, Evrrldnl Lvfr vn thr Mbdrrn Wbrld, (Lbndbn: Trnnfnptvbn Phblvfhrrf, 1984), p. 176.
(47) Szlthr, "Nb Pnrxvnt," p. 57.

:-) Cbplrvtht 1998 Invn Bbrdrn (jvth prrzvffvbn) All rvthtf rrfrrvrd.